When developing an entirely new, complex capability like a human-rated spacecraft, how does ESA integrate expertise?

It often integrates pre-existing, specialized contributions from its constituent national agencies.

A key structural difference lies in how the agencies develop major new capabilities. When ISRO undertakes the development of a complex system, such as a human-rated spacecraft, it typically leverages an internal, centralized drive. Conversely, ESA’s structure allows it to draw upon a wider breadth of pre-existing expertise by integrating specialized contributions that have already been developed by its various constituent national agencies. This process means ESA can often integrate established components or expertise from different European nations, affecting the tempo of development but providing a vast pool of ready-made specialized knowledge.