Besides charging effects, what physical change to the upper atmosphere increases drag on low-Earth orbit satellites during space weather events?
Answer
Increased heating causes the atmosphere to expand outward
During strong space weather events, energetic particles heat the upper atmosphere significantly. This thermal input causes the upper atmospheric layers, including the thermosphere where many low-Earth orbit satellites reside, to heat up and expand outward. This expansion effectively increases the density of the atmosphere at those orbital altitudes. The resulting increased atmospheric drag acts as a brake on the satellites, requiring them to use extra fuel for station-keeping maneuvers or risking premature de-orbiting.
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